President Joe Biden has approved sending anti-personnel landmines to Ukraine, as he seeks to ramp up support for Kyiv in his final days in office.
It comes after the US allowed Ukrainian forces to fire at targets deep inside Russian territory with American-made weapons such as ATACMS missiles.
A US official said Washington has now authorised the provision of anti-personnel landmines, which have a long and controversial history.
Their use is banned by more than 150 countries – but notably not by the US and Russia.
What are anti-personnel landmines?
Landmines are explosives that are concealed on the ground and are designed to detonate when enemy forces pass over or near them.
Some are built to destroy armoured vehicles (anti-tank mines) while others are built to hurt enemy troops (anti-personnel mines).
They can be used for a range of purposes including protecting facilities, preparing an ambush, forcing enemy forces to travel down a narrow route where firepower can be focussed, and covering a retreat.
Some landmines are time-limited so they no longer work after a certain amount of time has elapsed, but others can be dangerous for decades after being laid.
Why are they controversial?
Anti-personnel landmines are indiscriminate – hurting both military and civilians – and can leave victims with lifelong injuries. Often they are designed to maim, rather than kill, so as to overwhelm an enemy’s logistical and medical resources.
The International Committee of the Red Cross says anti-personnel mines “leave a long-lasting legacy of death, injury and suffering”.
It adds: “Mine contamination makes it impossible to use vast areas of land, compromising food production and destroying livelihoods. The impact of anti-personnel mines on communities often lasts for decades.”
The anti-personnel mines reportedly being provisioned by the US are “non-persistent” and become inert after a preset period, according to a US official.
However, the Red Cross says that even these ‘smart’ mines “indiscriminately endanger civilians while they are activated”.
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Are they legal?
More than 150 countries, including the UK, have pledged to ban their use, production, stockpiling and transfer through the 1997 Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention, also known as the Ottawa Treaty.
Notably, however, some major powers such as the US, Russia and China are not signed up to the treaty.
Ukraine is a signatory, but has indicated that it might withdraw from the treaty out of military necessity.
Ukrainian mine experts scan for unexploded landmines by the main road to Kherson. Pic: Reuters
Have landmines been used in Ukraine before?
The US has provided Ukraine with anti-tank mines throughout the war, but the addition of anti-personnel mines is a change.
Since 2022 – the year of Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine – Mr Putin’s forces have used at least 13 types of anti-personnel mines, according to the Associated Press.
Russia never signed the 1997 convention on anti-personnel mines, but the use of such mines is considered a violation of its obligations under international law.
A 2023 report by the International Campaign to Ban Landmines also said Ukrainian forces may have used anti-personnel landmines in contravention of the convention in and around the city of Izium during 2022, when the city was under Russian control.